Articles
Marine Genetic Resources
Marine Genetic Resources
The ocean has always been essential to humanity, yet it has undergone unparalleled deterioration.
There has never been a more crucial time for scientists to keep discovering new species and coming up with creative methods to harness marine resources for the benefit of biodiversity and humanity.
Marine areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ), sometimes known as the "high seas," are portions of the ocean over which no one country has complete authority or obligation. These regions, which are home to a broad variety of rare species and delicate ecosystems, make up two thirds of the world's oceans.
Sharing benefits of marine biodiversity
The fragmented legislative frameworks now in place to govern ABNJ contribute to the marine biodiversity's vulnerability and danger of degradation despite its enormous value and importance for medical progress.
The biodiversity of this enormous expanse of the ocean is being increasingly impacted by growing human activity in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ). In order to create an international legally binding instrument (ILBI) for the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of ABNJ [marine biodiversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction (BBNJ) agreement] under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. The General Assembly of the United Nations agreed to hold a number of intergovernmental conferences (IGCs). The BBNJ agreement takes into account marine genetic resources (MGR) in ABNJ, including how to share advantages and advance marine scientific research while enhancing the scientific and technological capabilities of developing states.
MGR (Marine Genetic Resources)
Marine Genetic Resources (MGR), or biodiverse plants, animals, algae, and other creatures found in ABNJ, can be utilized to create novel medications and medical therapies for conditions affecting people like cancer, discomfort, and heart diseases.
Marine genetic resources are defined as genetic material with functional units of heredity that has an actual or potential value that is derived from marine plants, animals, microbes, or other origins.
The deep sea's genetic resources can be applied to a variety of fields, including medicine, cosmetics, food, manufacturing, and scientific research, with a variety of possible advantages. The preservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in places under and outside the purview of national jurisdiction are intrinsically related to the fair and equitable distribution of the benefits from genetic resources. The development of a new international agreement for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea must address access to deep-sea genetic resources and the sharing of benefits resulting from their use. However, it is not apparent how MGR can actually be made more accessible or how advantages may be obtained and fairly distributed. Understanding and addressing these issues require a bridge between deep-sea science and international law.
Exploring MGR
Using the relevant scientific and commercial literature, let's review the information that is now accessible on the actual and potential economic value of marine genetic resources. It is impossible to boil down the worth of marine life and environments to just economic considerations. As a contribution to evidence-based analysis and discussion on the economic value of these resources, our goal is to evaluate the information already available on the economic value of marine genetic resources from Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction. In particular, we contend that marine genetic resources currently have potential economic worth rather than actual value. The architecture of a potential implementing agreement (or agreements) including access and benefit-sharing within the framework of United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is significantly impacted by this.
Important distinctions between the sorts of marine creature resources and between potential and actual values must be made. In reference to the many resources derived from marine animals, we refer to genetic material from marine organisms that falls into one of three major groups as "marine genetic resources“
DNA, RNA, amino acid, and metabolic pathway sequences that express certain products of interest or carry out specific roles
Chemical compounds that can either be characterized (when the compound's structure is completely described) or uncharacterized
Raw marine creature extracts, such as fish oils
Genetic resources fall into the first group, which includes tools for scientific research and commercial enzyme production. These resources are expressed in informative form as sequence data.
The second group of resources is most directly related to pharmaceuticals and medical treatments, where the identification and use of a defined or uncharacterized substance does not rely on the examination of the underlying genetic interactions and structure of an organism.
The commercial harvesting of marine organisms, such as Antarctic krill for the production of goods based on Omega-3 fatty acids, or the usage of extracts in cosmetics and nutraceuticals, are most closely related to the third category of raw extracts from marine organisms.
When considering the economic value of marine genetic resources, these broad divisions are helpful for descriptive purposes.
The first category of marine genetic resources focuses on DNA and amino acid sequences utilized to encode information for the expression product of interest, such as an enzyme, which may subsequently be synthesized in an industrial host organism like a yeast or bacterium. Once the synthesis process has been perfected, this usually does not require extensive and frequent consumption of a marine organism. A synthesized commercial version of Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP), which is frequently used in biotechnology as an expression marker and sells for around $250–300 per 300 micrograms (ug), is readily available. Although Escherichia coli, an engineered bacteria, now produces GFP, the GFP gene was originally discovered in the jellyfish Aequorea victoria.
the second category may require repeated collections of the organism of interest (such as a sea sponge) until such time that a compound is fully characterized and a synthetic or semi-synthetic route is found to produce the compound of interest. This can raise conservation issues such as in the case of the best selling cancer drug Taxol, derived from the endangered Pacific Yew (Taxus brevifolia), which required government incentives to promote the quest for a semi-synthetic and fully synthetic means to produce the compound that did not require repeated collection of the bark of this tree. In the case of Taxol it took over 20 years before the first complete synthesis of the compound was reported. This kind of problem is particularly common for creatures like sea sponges and tunicates that create small amounts of very complex chemicals.
Raw extracts, which make up the third category, typically require repeated collection of an organism. The most well-known example of marine genetic resources is Omega-3 fatty acids, which are extracted from fish and, more recently, Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba), in order to meet the expanding demand for Omega-3 products. Resources in categories 2 and 3 present serious conservation challenges, even when they appear to be in plentiful supply, like krill.
Recognizing that different industry sectors use marine species as resources in various ways with varying effects on conservation and sustainable usage is vital. In comparison to other uses of marine resources, such as the collection of organisms using benthic trawls, genetic resources used as informational resources in biotechnology based on small samples expressible as DNA, RNA, and amino acid sequences do not have the same level of environmental impacts on source organisms.
Types of MGR
1. Although they lack a realized or realizable commercial value, marine genetic resources have real significance for research in expanding knowledge and understanding of marine biodiversity.
2. Marine genetic resources that are the subject of research and development efforts with the goal of potentially creating novel and valuable products, but which have not yet produced commercial goods that have successfully undergone regulatory approval and been released to the market.
3. Available commercial marine genetic resources or products.
The potential economic worth of marine genetic resources is related to the first two categories. Both scientific literature and patent applications and grants typically fall into these categories, with the former because it may allude to or directly point to potential commercial applications and the latter because patent applications are an open sign of commercially oriented research and development that applicants believe has the potential to result in a marketable application or product. Clinical trial-tested substances are widely used as a gauge of economic value in existing assessments on the worth of marine genetic resources. Clinical trial substances typically don't turn into commercially viable products. This could be as a result of the promising compound's lack of efficacy or extreme toxicity in either humans or animals. Clinical trials are therefore a sign of promise rather than of real value, albeit clearly demonstrating a goal to develop a commercial product. This demonstrates that the only accurate measures of economic value come from goods that are sold.
Potential Markets (Key Marine Biotechnology Sectors) and Patent Activity
Lubricants
A novel lubricant to be utilised in the manufacturing of steel sheets has been claimed by Nissin Oil Mills Ltd and Nippon Steel Corporation (EP0193870A2, 1986). The lubricant contained oils from a deep-sea fish that was discovered off the coasts of South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. The fish are from the species Hoplostethus atlanticus, Hoplostethus mediterraneus, Hoplostethus gilchristi, and Hoplostethus intermedius, also known as roughies or slimeheads. When employed in a cold rolling environment, the oils' wax esters, which have exceptional thermal stability, give them a competitive edge over other oils. The roughy is a fish with a late reproductive cycle and an extremely long lifespan of up to 149 years, making it an important fishing species. This example demonstrates the possibility for using marine genetic resources in industrial processes while simultaneously highlighting a conservation issue. Over-exploitation, however, has drastically decreased the population. Due to the late age at which fish spawn, which happens when the fish are about 30 years old, stocks recover very slowly, raising concerns about the sustainability of this harvest.
Oil recovery
A 2012 patent application by Geo Fossil Fuels LLC (WO2012116230A1) for "new, efficient, economical and environmentally safe microbial methods to enhance oil recovery, as well as microorganisms useful in such methods" serves as an example of another industrial application of deep-sea marine life. In this innovation, hydrocarbons in oil reservoirs are broken down by microbes that are naturally or artificially modified to be alkaliphilic, halo-alkaliphilic, or alkaline tolerant, making the recovery of oil more feasible. Gene sequences from Oceanobacillus iheyensis, a deep-sea microorganism that was initially isolated from deep-sea sediment collected at a depth of 1,050 m on the Iheya Ridge, are present in the microorganisms that are utilized.
Fish Feed & Oils
The little crustaceans of the order Euphausiacea, known as krill, are among the species within the patent landscape that are particularly deserving of attention. In a wide range of papers and sectors, krill meal and oils are frequently mentioned. One such sector is aquaculture, which supplies a significant amount of the human population's fish products. A 2009 patent application by Nippon Suisan Kaisha Ltd. for a "Feed using peeled krill as the starting material and method of preventing decrease in fish growth rate by using the same" (EP2095722A1) provides an example of how krill can be utilized as a component in feed for farmed fish. Background: Fishmeal would typically be used to provide protein to carnivorous farm fish, however due to the abundance of Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) and the expansion of the aquaculture sector, krill might potentially replace fishmeal. By removing the krill's shell before making the meal, the patent claims a composition that promotes optimal development rates in farmed fish while preventing the danger of harmful levels of fluorine entering the food chain.
Fuels
The patent landscape notably features microbes from deep-sea settings. A novel hydrogenase was claimed by the Korea Ocean Research and Development Institute in EP2333054A2 (2011). This enzyme was discovered in a strain of Thermococcus onnurineus that is hyperthermophilic and was found in a deep-sea hydrothermal vent at the PACMANUS field in the South Pacific's East Manus Basin. These isolates are stored in type culture collections, and the strain used in this innovation was obtained from the Korean Collection for Type Cultures (KCTC) at the Korean Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), where it was given the accession number KCTC 10859BP. The claim mentions a gene encoding hydrogenase as well as the use of a culture method for the microorganism to create hydrogen in a way that is more effective than current processes like the electrolysis of water and the thermal-cracking or steam reforming of natural gas. By simply cultivating the strains under particular culture conditions, a significant amount of hydrogen can be created using the invention's methods for producing hydrogen. The invention's methods therefore offer an advantage over currently used hydrogen production methods in that they are more economical and effective and can still create hydrogen at high temperatures.
Similar work is being done by the Craig Venter Institute to create hydrogenases that can tolerate oxygen and evolve from water in order to produce hydrogen (WO2008143630A2, 2008). The bacterium utilized in this example is Alteromonas macleodii (str deep ecotype,'made'), which was discovered in the Uranian Basin (Crete, Ionian) in deep water at a depth of 3500 metres.
Thermotogae (US20120270297A1, University Bowling Green State, 2012) is yet another marine bacteria giving a possible biotechnological source for the creation of an energy alternative to fossil fuels.
Catalysts
The enzyme produced by using thermophilic bacteria as a catalyst in the extraction of carbon dioxide (WO2010151787A1) has many potential applications, according to a patent application lodged by Novozymes AS. In this application, carbonic anhydrases from Caminibacter are used to remove CO2. Carbonic anhydrases have a variety of uses, including the removal of CO2 during the production of industrial gases and the extraction of CO2 from CO2 emission streams like power plants or exhausts. The carbonic anhydrase or enzyme-based bioreactors are also helpful in less common settings, such as cockpits and firefighting equipment, to keep breathing air free of CO2 or to remove it from CO2 sensitive settings, like museums and libraries, to prevent excessive CO2 from causing acid damage to books and artwork.
From deep-sea hydrothermal vents, several Caminibacter bacterial strains have been identified. According to Novozymes' application, "confirms that the amino acid sequence gives rise to an enzyme with carbonic anhydrase activity," the mature carbonic anhydrase from C. mediatlanticus DSM 16658 was cloned, expressed, and isolated. The enzyme's characterisation also showed that it is thermostable to a degree that was unexpected given the bacterium's growing temperature.
Polymerases and PCR
New applications for extremophilic organisms are being discovered in the field of biotechnology. A thermostable DNA polymerase gene from Thermococcus barossi was identified and cloned in 2009 by GE Healthcare Biosciences using material from the deep vent flange of the Endeavour Segment of the Juan de Fuca Ridge in the United States (WO2009085333A1). A tectonic spreading region between the Juan de Fuca Plate and the Pacific Plate is known as the Juan de Fuca Ridge. With the help of this newly discovered Tba DNA polymerase, the PCR technique for amplifying lengthy DNA fragments was enhanced. This improved technique can be utilized, specifically, to quickly amplify DNA pieces longer than 10 kb. The discovery and study of disease genes have been significantly aided by the capacity to quickly and readily obtain large DNA sequences.
A unique hyperthermophilic "DNA polymerase useful in precision analysis, precision diagnosis, identification, and the like, which require accurate PCR" is also claimed by the Korea Ocean Research & Development Institute (WO2007043769A1, 2007). A new hyperthermophilic Thermococcus sp. strain was discovered in this application, and it was found at a deep-sea hydrothermal vent area at the PACMANUS hydrothermal field in Papua New Guinea, along the crest of Pual Ridge. WO2008066350A1 (2008) from a Thermococcus sp. NAl. strain that was likewise obtained from the PACMANUS hydrothermal area is another illustration of the organization's work with enzymes. Another thermostable enzyme, obtained from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus guaymasensis, is useful as a biocatalyst for the synthesis of chiral compounds and for the manufacture of biofuels (WO2010034115A1, Ma Kesen and Ying Xiangxian, 2010).
Nutraceuticals
Humans also eat products made from krill, typically in the form of Omega-3 fatty acids found in products known as "nutraceuticals," which are marketed as having both nutritional benefit and an impact on biological functioning. There are several commercially available goods when you search for "krill oil preparations" online. These products are the subject of ongoing research and development. Ronald E. Rosedale recently published US20120321602A1 (2012), which describes a new omega-3 function model based on the idea that some phospholipid forms are better at enhancing membrane fluidity and permeability, while other forms of omega-3 fatty acids (such as free fatty acid forms) are better at stimulating biologie. In order to "...to the greatest extent possible, duplicate at least some of the beneficial effects of caloric restriction as a model for improved health," a new product was created using this paradigm.
A highly unsaturated fatty acid is one of the constituent fatty acids in Nippon Suisan Kaisha Ltd's "a sexual function improving agent" that "contains a lipid as an active ingredient, which includes a highly unsaturated fatty acid as a constituent fatty acid" (WO2012103692A1). As the active component of this remedy, pure krill oil is used.
Pharmaceuticals
A number of accomplishments in bioprospecting for marine anti-tumor chemicals can be seen in the table of commercialized marine derived medications (below). Sea squirts, also known as tunicates, have been very productive in producing potential anti-tumor cancer treatments. The Spanish business PharmaMar SA filed a patent application (WO2007054748) for an anti-tumor medication made from indole alkaloids obtained from the tunicate Aplidium cyaneum in 2007. The tunicates were gathered by bottom trawling at depths between 220 and 300 meters in the Weddell Sea. This species is found all throughout the Antarctic in the shelf waters that slope from 75 down to roughly 1,000 meters. Clinical trials have been conducted and are being conducted on compounds isolated from or generated from tunicates, which are thought to be a potentially useful component of the ongoing quest for particular anticancer medicines.
WO2011076605A1 provides an additional, more recent illustration of an organism with potential medicinal use. The French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) and Lille University of Science and Technology assert in this 2011 application that a deep-sea heat-tolerant worm can be used in aquaculture and may have potential therapeutic uses for humans. It is asserted that the pharmaceutical composition can be employed as a disinfectant, dietary composition, notably as a food supplement, and antibiotic therapy for humans or animals. An Alvinella pompejana, a deep-sea worm, was used to isolate an antibacterial peptide. Worms can endure temperatures of up to 80 °C and still survive. Twenty complete, fully-grown, and sexually mature Pompeii worms were collected on the East Pacific Rise at a depth of 3,000 metres, according to the petitioners.
The mucus of the hagfish, Myxine Glutinosa, is another example of a marine-derived substance with potential for therapeutic use. The peptide myxinidin in the extract of extruded hagfish slime shown microbiocidal action against a wide spectrum of microbial infections in a 2009 application from the Canada National Research Council (WO2009149554A1). It also showed no damage to mammalian red blood cells. According to some claims, the antimicrobial peptide myxinidin can be used to treat human and fish diseases, as well as promote wound healing, by acting as an antibactericidal or bacteriostatic agent. Although they have a much wider range of habitats and have been discovered as deep as 1000 m, Atlantic hagfish are most frequently caught in muddy sediments on the ocean floor at depths between 150 and 250 m.
Nanotechnology
WO2005094543A2, filed by Verenium Corp (previously Diversa Corp) in 2005, is an illustration of a patent application with broad applicability in nanotechnology, pharmacology, and drug manufacturing. This illustration is based on the heat-resistant protein Cannulae A (also known as CanA), which can produce nanotubes. Pyrodictium abyssi, a hyperthermophilic microbe identified in a high temperature environment (>100 °C), produces cannulae nanotubes. Pyrodictium abyssi cells are connected to one another by a network of tiny nanotubular fibres in both their natural habitat and in cell culture. These fibre networks are a distinctive characteristic of the species Pyrodictium, and they appear to be necessary for growth beyond 100 °C, according to the text. Although it is yet unknown what the exact function of nanotubes in nature is, it has been proposed that the tubules connecting cells may allow for the interchange of metabolites, genetic material, or signalling substances.” It is asserted that this application has the potential to be used for the detoxification of soil and water, plant development, heat-resistant fabrics and coatings, and human health.
Diagnostics
A 2001 patent application from Northeastern University in the USA called WO2001009387A1 shows how novel genetic traits of marine species can be used in diagnostics. By using bottom trawling, fish samples were taken from the Antarctic waters close to Low and Brabant Islands in the Palmer Archipelago. The researchers found that the deletion of the majority of the juvenile and adult globin gene complexes caused a unique family of Antarctic fish (the hemoglobin-lacking icefish Chaenocephalus aceratus, Pseudochaenichthys georgianus and Chionodraco rastrospinosus), to lack haemoglobin expression. Red blood cell production has likewise stopped in the 'white-blooded' icefish. The method described in the claimed invention involves searching for and finding novel genes involved in hematopoiesis, particularly those involved in erythropoiesis, that are expressed by red-blooded fish but not by white-blooded fish. The idea is beneficial for the detection and treatment of illnesses like sickle cell anaemia, thalassemia or clinical anaemia following chemotherapy.
Bioluminescence
Marine genetic resources that are no longer the subject of inventions but have evolved into well-established and useful tools across a variety of technologies and sectors are mentioned frequently throughout the patent data. The fluorescent proteins are among them and are prominent. Originally, these proteins were taken from marine creatures. The sea pansy Renilla reniformis, the jellyfish Aequorea victoria, and the hydroid Phialidium gregarium have all been found to contain green fluorescent proteins (GFPs). These proteins serve as reporter genes in a range of molecular or cell biology research methodologies and serve as energy-transfer acceptors in bioluminescence. Although GFPs were initially derived from Aequorea victoria, they have successfully been produced in the lab and now come in a variety of colours.
EP1156103A2, in which Chisso Corporation (2001) claimed a polynucleotide or polynucleotides encoding Oplophorus luciferase from the deep-sea prawn Oplophorus gracilirostris, is an example of research done to further study bioluminescence in marine species. The invention additionally contained a procedure for cultivating the host cell to recombinantly produce the proteins.
Biosensors
A few patents deal with the use of deep-sea microbes to track human activity, such as the dumping of rubbish there. The invention of a 16S rDNA probe suitable for species-specific detection of microorganisms as indicators in investigating and monitoring their growth and the circulation of deep-sea water is demonstrated in EP1193312A1 (2002). The application submitted by the National Institute for Advanced Industrial Science & Technology (Japan) sought "to provide a technique for species-specifically detecting a microorganism naturally inhabiting in the deep sea or an analogue thereof, based on the characteristics of its genetic information." At the molecular or cellular level, a probe can specifically find Psychrobacter pacificensis.
A heterotrophic microbe called Psychrobacter pacificensis was discovered in saltwater from the Japan Trench at a depth of 6,000 metres. Due to rising CO2 levels and other pollutants that enter deep-layer seawater, there are worries about the quality of the water. The application's main goal is to offer a method for assessing the dangers of utilising deep-sea water and keeping track of the condition of the deep sea.
Measuring Biodiversity
The creation of probes to measure biodiversity is another area of patent activity. In 2003, the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) of India submitted a patent application (US20030143534A1) for a lantern fish detection probe. The lantern fishes (Family Myctophidae) are among the mesopelagic fishes (200-1000 m), and they are quite widespread and numerous in both species and individuals in the open ocean midwaters of the world oceans. The assessment and calculation of genetic resources, genetic variability, and the degree of gene flow between different stocks and populations in the world's seas can all be aided by an understanding of the population sizes and distribution of myctophids. The DNA collected from lantern fish is processed using recombinant DNA techniques to create genetic probes that can distinguish between different species of fish.
Biofouling
The creation of safe anti-fouling chemicals is another important area of patent activity. Marine hull coatings are expected to see a market value increase from $5 billion in 2011 to $10.2 billion in 2018 The unwelcome buildup of microbes, plants, and animals on artificial surfaces, such as ship hulls, docks, buoys, etc., is known as biofouling. More than 4000 species of organisms, including bacteria, microalgae, macroalgae, seagrass, molluscs, crustaceans, etc., have been identified as species that cause biofouling. The majority of fouling organisms go through a swimming larval stage, followed by a stationary adult stage that spends the rest of its life adhered to its substratum. Along with other detrimental effects, the connected adult organisms can raise frictional resistance on ship hulls, add weight to buoys, obstruct seawater pipes, and compete with cultivated shellfish for resources like food and space.
Organotins, exemplified as tributyltin (TBT), were frequently used anti-fouling chemicals from the 1960s until recently. One of the most dangerous and toxic substances released into marine habitats is currently thought to be TBT. In-depth research and development have been done to provide non-toxic antifouling coatings in response to the concerns over TBT and other antifouling biocides.
The Hong Kong University of Science & Technology's (US20110185944A1, 2011) claim of a non-toxic, environmentally friendly method for preventing or reducing biofouling brought on by Balanus amphitrite, Hydroides elegans, and Bugula neritina serves as an example of the type of product development and research. The application is for antifouling chemicals made from a strain of Streptomyces albidoflavus called UST040711-291 that was isolated from a sediment sample taken from the west Pacific Ocean's 5000 m depth.
The substance was created by cultivating the bacteria and then extracting a unique class of lactone-like chemicals called butenolides. When applied to a surface, these substances were discovered to fend off different species at all phases of their life cycles. The new compound, the method of manufacturing, and the application method are all covered in the patent application.
Economic Potential of Marine Biotechnology
It is challenging to convert the potential economic worth of marine genetic resources into real economic worth. However, it's also critical to acknowledge that over the past 30 years, biotechnology as a whole has followed a trajectory or road from potential to real usefulness.
While the biotechnology industry is still dependent on the promise of new products, the search for potential has also resulted in the establishment of new businesses, the creation of jobs, and increases in GDP. This trajectory is well shown by the UK biotechnology industry and the markets for biotechnology goods.
Every year, the UK Department for Business, Innovation and Skills produces a report on the state of the pharmaceutical and industrial biotechnology industries in the country. The pharmaceutical industry, which employs the majority of the 122,000 individuals employed in the three biotechnology-related industries in the UK, is followed by the medical biotechnology industry, which has 50,000 workers. There are just about 1,800 individuals employed in the UK's industrial biotechnology sector, which is still quite tiny. Over £38 billion is made annually in the UK's combined biotechnology industry.
Barriers to the Development of Marine Products
According to Martins et al. (2014), there are three key obstacles to commercial success in the pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical (medical cosmetics) markets: The cost of getting a product to market; supply and technical constraints (sustainable production); accessibility of the biodiversity. When we realize that around 20,000 structurally distinct marine natural products have been reported, with 1,241 being described in 2012 alone, the breadth of these barriers becomes clear.
According to the Martins review and other research, the following factors have been recognized as major obstacles to the development of marine natural products:
Inability to classify an organism's taxa in an unambiguous manner
Variation in an organism's character within a species brought on by various environmental pressures and other elements, such as the microbial environment
Issues with organism culture
Issues in finding a reliable supply
Clinical trial failure rates were low (a typical issue for different drugs)
There are major obstacles to the development of marine natural products from Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction, especially at depth.
The high seas' current laws and procedures are absolutely insufficient to meet future demands and ensure that marine life and the priceless genetic resources they contain are safeguarded for future generations, including through the creation of marine sanctuaries. In accordance with the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, a new framework is required to safeguard marine genetic resources and to ensure access to high seas waters and the seabed in regions beyond of any one nation's legal control.
The environmental effects of biological prospecting in comparison to other human interventions, while simultaneously emphasizing the need for caution to prevent environmental damage.
Working with current research practices, challenges relating to access to genetic resources can be effectively handled.
Benefit-sharing should be the main focus of attention in the context of a longer-term, strategic approach aimed at advancing human knowledge and understanding of the diversity of deep-sea life and supporting its preservation and sustainable usage for the benefit of all.
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