Prelude

One of the most important new technologies of Industry 4.0 is 3D printing. The industry is evolving toward intelligent production through the use of additive manufacturing in conjunction with other technologies. In this production environment, machines—autonomous, automatic, and intelligent—as well as systems and networks are able to communicate with one another and react to production management systems. Additionally, 3D printing plays a crucial role as a technology that can autonomously transform a 3D design into a product. Additionally, 3D printers reduce post-processing, material waste, and human intervention by doing away with the need for pricey tools and fixtures. The future of this business is characterized by these traits.

Factories can now be more adaptable and meet the demands of a market that is becoming more and more unpredictable because of 3D printing. Furthermore, it makes it possible to produce a wide range of customized items without the need for pricey molds and production equipment.

Similarly, 3D printing is a wonderful ally of the environment, which is a very significant attribute given the state of the climate today and the significance of having sustainable manufacturing methods that produce less waste and consume less resources.

3D printing, also referred to as additive manufacturing, is the process of creating products using computer-controlled robots that layer materials to create an object based on a computer-aided design (CAD). In Industry 4.0, businesses in the aerospace and automotive sectors employ sophisticated 3D software called generative design to rethink products with more intricate geometry and less material in order to increase efficiency. These 3D models, which were created in part by generative design software, which incorporates artificial intelligence, have geometry so complex that conventional manufacturing techniques are unable to produce them.

Subtractive manufacturing is the generic term used to describe traditional techniques of creating industrial items. Computer numerical control, or CNC, machining is referred to as subtractive manufacturing. Subtractive manufacturing involves taking material out of solid chunks as opposed to adding layers of material like additive manufacturing does. Subtractive manufacturing is more efficient than additive manufacturing as it doesn't waste raw materials while working.

The future of additive manufacturing is really bright. The proliferation of materials and techniques, along with a significant quantity of scientific study and the establishment of specialized enterprises, has led to an expansion of the potential applications of technology. With the potential for continued expansion, 3D printing has become the preferred production method across a wide range of businesses. Furthermore, the global COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in a surge in the advancement and standardization of 3D printing because to the growing need for rapidly customized components.

What is additive manufacturing?

The process of producing an object one layer at a time is known as additive manufacturing. It is the opposite of subtractive manufacturing, which makes an object by gradually removing material from a solid block until the desired result is achieved. Although the term "additive manufacturing" generally refers to 3-D printing, it can technically refer to any technique where a product is formed by building things up, such as molding.

Prototypes were created using additive manufacturing for the first time in the 1980s; these were mostly non-functional things. Rapid prototyping was the term given to this procedure because it made it possible to swiftly produce a scale model of the finished product without the usual setup time and associated expenses.

The applications of additive manufacturing grew to include quick tooling, which made molds for finished goods. By the early 2000s, useful objects were being made with additive manufacturing. In recent times, businesses like as General Electric and Boeing have started integrating additive manufacturing into their operational procedures.

Someone must first produce a design in order to use additive manufacturing to create an object. This is usually accomplished by scanning the thing that has to be printed or by using computer aided design, or CAD, software. The design is then translated by software into a framework that the additive manufacturing machine can follow, layer by layer. The 3-D printer receives this and gets to work instantly constructing the thing.

Additive manufacturing processes

While people frequently refers to all Additive Manufacturing procedures as "3D printing," there are actually many distinct processes that differ in how they manufacture layers. Specific procedures will vary according on the material and machine technology employed. As a result, in 2010 the "ASTM F42 - Additive Manufacturing" group of the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) developed a set of standards that divide the variety of Additive Manufacturing processes into seven groups (Standard Terminology for Additive Manufacturing Technologies, 2012).

VAT Photopolymerisation

Layer by layer, the model is built using a vat of liquid photopolymer resin in a process known as vat polymerization. When necessary, an ultraviolet (UV) light is utilized to cure or harden the resin, and once each new layer is hardened, a platform is used to move the object being created lower.

Unlike powder-based procedures, which provide support from the unbound material, this process does not provide structural support from the material throughout the build phase because it uses a liquid to produce objects. It will frequently be necessary to create support structures in this situation. UV light, which is directed across the resin's surface using motor-controlled mirrors, or photo polymerization are two methods used to cure resins (Gibson et al., 2010; Grenda, 2009). The resin cures, or hardens, where it comes into contact with light.

Photopolymerization: A Comprehensive Guide

The build platform descends by the layer thickness from the top of the resin vat.

The resin is cured layer by layer by a UV lamp. The platform keeps descending as new levels are constructed on top of the old.

Some machines create a smooth resin base on which to produce the subsequent layer by moving a blade between layers.

Once finished, the piece is taken out and the resin is drained from the vat.

Although the SLA method produces parts with excellent quality and great accuracy, it frequently necessitates post-curing and support structures to make the part strong enough for structural usage. Photo polymerization may be accomplished with just one laser and some optics. In order to guarantee that the resin used to produce the subsequent layer is free of flaws, blades or recoating blades are applied over earlier layers. In order to produce a high-quality model, air spaces that were likely created by the photo-polymerization process and the support material need to be filled with resin. In this procedure, layers typically have a thickness of 0.025 to 0.5mm.

The Vat polymerisation process uses Plastics and Polymers.Polymers: UV-curable Photopolymer resinResins: Visijet range (3D systems)

Benefits

High precision and a quality outcome, comparatively rapid procedure

Large build areas are typical: object 1000: 1000 x 800 x 500 with a 200 kilogram maximum model weight

Drawbacks

Comparatively costly, extended post-processing duration and resin recovery

Restricted application of photo-resins

For parts to be strong enough for structural application, post-curing and support structures are frequently needed.

Material Jetting

Material jetting works similarly to a two-dimensional ink jet printer to produce items. Material is sent to a build platform in two ways: continuously and via Drop on Demand (DOD). The build surface or platform is sprayed with material, which solidifies and is used to build the model layer by layer. A nozzle that travels horizontally across the build platform deposits material. The intricacy of machines' techniques for regulating material deposition varies. Next, ultraviolet (UV) light is used to cure or harden the material layers.The quantity of materials that can be used is constrained because they need to be deposited in drops. Because they are viscous and may form drops, polymers and waxes are appropriate and often utilized materials.

Material Jetting: A Comprehensive Guide

The print head is situated above the platform for building.

Where necessary, the print head deposits material droplets onto a surface utilizing a thermal or piezoelectric technique.

First layer is made up of solidified substance droplets.

The layers are stacked one on top of the other as before.

Layers are either cured by UV radiation or left to cool and harden. Support material removal is a part of post processing.

Material Jetting works similarly to a two-dimensional ink jet printer to create items. It is possible to employ more than one material in a single process, and to switch materials mid-build. Using an oscillating nozzle, material is blasted into droplets that are produced onto the build platform surface. Then, using charged deflection plates, droplets are charged and positioned onto the surface. Due to its continuous nature, this technology offers a great degree of droplet location and control. Recycled droplets go back into the printing system after being used.

The material jetting process uses polymers and plastics.

Polymers: Polypropylene, HDPE, PS, PMMA, PC, ABS, HIPS, EDP

Benefits

The method has low waste because of the excellent accuracy of the droplet deposition.

Multiple material elements and colors can be used in a single operation thanks to this method.

Drawbacks

Supporting documentation is frequently needed.

Although there aren't many materials available, only polymers and waxes can be utilized to obtain great precision.

Binder Jetting

Two ingredients are used in the binder jetting process: a powder and a binder. Layers of powder are adhered to one another by the binder. Typically, the construction material is in powder form and the binder is in liquid form. A print head deposits alternating layers of the construction material and the binding material as it travels horizontally along the machine's x and y axes. The object being printed is dropped onto its construction platform after every layer.

The material's properties aren't always appropriate for structural elements because of the binding technique, and even while printing is very quick, further post-processing (see below) can take a long time.

The object being printed is self-supported within the powder bed, just like in other powder-based manufacturing techniques, and is taken out of the unbound powder after it is finished. The technique is protected by copyright under this term and is frequently referred to as 3DP technology.

Binder Jetting: A Comprehensive Guide

A roller is used to distribute powder material over the build platform.

Where necessary, the print head applies the binder glue directly over the powder.

The model's layer thickness lowers the build platform.

Over the first layer, another layer of powder is applied. Where the powder and liquid are joined together, the item is produced.

The unbound powder stays in the area around the object.

Until the complete thing is formed, the process is repeated.

Metals: Stainless steel, Polymers: ABS, PA, PC

Ceramics: Glass

All three types of materials can be used with the binder jetting process.

Benefits

Parts can be produced in a variety of colors.

uses a variety of materials, such as ceramics, metal, and polymers.

In general, the procedure is quicker than others.

A wide range of alternative binder-powder combinations and mechanical qualities are possible with the two material technique.

Drawbacks

Because binder material is used, structural parts are not always appropriate for it.

The entire process may take much longer with further post processing.

Color printing is possible using the binder jetting process, which also makes use of ceramic, polymers, and metal. In general, this procedure moves more quickly than others, and it can be made even faster by increasing the quantity of material-depositing print head holes. By adjusting the ratio and individual qualities of the two materials, the two material approach enables the achievement of a wide range of varied binder-powder combinations and mechanical properties of the final model. For this reason, the technique works effectively when a certain quality of internal material structure is required.

Material Extrusion

One popular material extrusion method that Stratasys trademarks is fuse deposition modeling (FDM).  The material is heated and deposited layer by layer after being forced through a nozzle. After every new layer is deposited, the nozzle can move horizontally and a platform can move vertically up and down. It's a widely utilized method on a lot of low-cost, home, and hobby 3D printers.

Numerous elements affect the final model quality in this process, but when these are adequately controlled, the approach has considerable promise and feasibility. While FDM develops layers upon layers, it differs from all other 3D printing technologies in that material is introduced continuously and under steady pressure through a nozzle. For correct results, this pressure needs to be maintained at a constant rate of change (Gibson et al., 2010). Chemical agents or temperature control are two methods of bonding material layers together. Spools of material are frequently fed into the machine.

Material Extrusion: A Comprehensive Guide

The first layer is created by the nozzle depositing material onto the first item slice's cross sectional area where it is needed.

On top of the layers that came before, the next layer is applied.

Since the material is melted during deposition, layers fuse together.

The use of widely available ABS plastic, which can create models with strong structural qualities, similar to a final production model, is one advantage of the material extrusion method. This may be a more cost-effective approach than injection molding in situations involving small volumes. Nonetheless, a high-quality finish necessitates controlling a number of variables throughout the process. Since it is impossible to create a perfectly square nozzle, the material-depositing nozzle will always have a radius, which will have an impact on the printed object's quality. Compared to other methods, accuracy and speed are poor, and the final model's quality is only as good as the thickness of the material nozzle.

The Material Extrusion process uses polyers and plastics.

Polymers: ABS, Nylon, PC, PC, AB

Benefits

widespread and affordable method

It is possible to use ABS plastic, which is readily available and has high structural qualities.

Drawbacks

The ultimate quality is limited and diminished by the nozzle radius.

In comparison to other methods, precision and speed are low, and the final model's accuracy is only as good as the material nozzle thickness.

Maintaining constant material pressure is necessary to improve finish quality.

Powder Bed Fusion

Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), electron beam melting (EBM), selective heat sintering (SHS), selective laser melting (SLM), and selective laser sintering (SLS) are printing techniques that are frequently employed in the Powder Bed Fusion process.

A laser or an electron beam is used in powder bed fusion (PBF) techniques to melt and fuse powdered materials together. Although electron beam melting (EBM) techniques need a vacuum, they can be applied to metals and alloys to create functioning parts. The powder material is dispersed over earlier layers in all PBF processes. This can be made possible by a variety of mechanisms, such as a roller or a blade. The supply of fresh material is provided by a reservoir or hopper beside or beneath the bed. Similar to SLS, but using metals instead of polymers, is direct metal laser sintering (DMLS). Layer by layer, the powder is sintered during the process. Unlike other methods, Selective Heat Sintering fuses powder material together using a heated thermal print head. Layers are added using a roller between layer fusions same like before. In accordance, a platform lowers the model.

Powder Bed Fusion: A Comprehensive Guide

Over the build platform, a layer of material is applied that is usually 0.1 mm thick.

The model's initial layer or cross section is fused together by a laser.

Using a roller, a fresh layer of powder is applied over the prior layer.

Additional layers or cross sections are combined and integrated.

Until the complete model is produced, the procedure is repeated. Unfused, loose powder is eliminated during post-processing, but it stays in place.

Selective laser sintering (SLS)

Three parts make up a machine: a mechanism to add fresh layers of material on top of the old, a heat source to fuse the material, and a control method for this heat source. The powder material offers sufficient model support during the build process, therefore the SLS method benefits from not needing any extra support structure. Because the build platform is housed in a temperature-controlled chamber, the laser's need to fuse layers together is lessened because the chamber's temperature is typically a few degrees below the melting point of the material.

Nitrogen is frequently poured into the chamber to maximize oxidation and model quality. In order to guarantee a high tolerance and quality of fusion, models need to cool down. Certain devices keep an eye on the temperature layer by layer and adjust the laser's wattage and power accordingly to enhance quality.

Selective Laser Melting (SLM)

SLM is frequently faster than SLS, but it also uses an inert gas, is more expensive, and usually only has a 10–20% energy efficiency. To apply fresh powder layers on top of older ones, a roller or a blade are used in the procedure. To promote a more uniform dispersion of powder, vibrating a blade while it is being sed is common practice. A supply of new material is provided by a reservoir or hopper next to or below the bed.

Selective Heat Sintering (SHS)

fuses powder material together using a heated thermal print head. As previously, layers are applied using a roller in between layer fusions. Concept prototypes and less so structural components are created using this approach. The procedure is improved by using a thermal print head rather than a laser since it requires much less heat and power. Powdered thermoplastics are used and serve as support material once more. With a build chamber measuring 200 x 160 x 140 mm, a print speed of 2-3 mm/hour, and a layer thickness of 0.1 mm, the "Blue printer" is a desktop 3D printer that employs SHS technology (Blue Printer SHS, 2014).

Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS)

use metals rather than plastic particles in the same manner as SLS. Layer by layer, the powder is sinterable, yielding a variety of engineering metals.

Electron Beam Melting (EBM)

Metal particles are melted with an electron beam to weld layers together. Arcam, the machine manufacturer, used a vacuum pressure of 1×10-5 mba and electromagnetic coils to regulate the beam. Because of the uniform temperature distribution during fusion, EBM produces models with extremely good strength qualities. Owing to its superior quality and smoothness, the method is well-suited for producing high-grade components for use in aircraft and medical equipment. Compared to conventional implant production procedures, the process has several advantages, such as hip stem prosthesis. When utilizing EBM with titanium and a 0.1mm layer thickness, as opposed to CNC machining, superior results can be obtained in a shorter amount of time, and costs can be lowered by up to 35%.

The Powder bed fusion process uses any powder based materials, but common metals and polymers used are:

SHS: Nylon DMLS, SLS, SLM: Stainless Steel, Titainium, Aluminium, Cobalt Chrome, Steel EBM: titanum, Cobalt Chrome, ss, al and copper

Benefits

comparatively cheap

Ideal for prototypes and visual models (SHS) able to incorporate technology into a machine that is tiny enough to fit in an office

Powder serves as a comprehensive structural support.

a wide selection of materials

Drawbacks

somewhat slow speed (SHS)

Absence of structural qualities in the substances

Size restrictions

elevated power consumption

The size of the powder grains affects finish.

Sheet Lamination

Laminated object manufacture (LOM) and ultrasonic additive manufacturing (UAM) are two methods used in sheet lamination. Ultrasonic welding is used to join metal sheets or ribbons in the Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing process. It is necessary to perform further CNC machining and remove the unbound metal throughout the process, which frequently happens while welding. Similar layer-by-layer techniques are used in laminated object manufacturing (LOM), where paper is used as the material and adhesive rather than welding.

Cross hatching is a printing technique used in the LOM process to provide simple post-build removal. Laminated objects are not appropriate for structural use; instead, they are frequently utilized for aesthetic and visual models. Aluminum, copper, stainless steel, and titanium are among the metals used in UAM (Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing Overview, 2014). Low temperature processing enables the creation of interior geometries.  Since the metal is not heated, the method can be used to connect a variety of materials and uses comparatively little energy.

Step by Step Guide to Sheet Lamination

On the cutting bed, the material is put in place.

Using the adhesive, the material is glued onto the preceding layer.

The required shape is then cut using a laser or knife from the layer.

It adds the subsequent layer.

It is possible to do steps two and three in reverse, or to cut the material before positioning and bonding it.

Laminating (LOM)

One of the earliest methods of additive manufacturing, it makes use of paper as one of the many types of sheet material. The use of A4 paper, which is widely available and reasonably priced, as well as a comparatively easy and affordable setup, in comparison to others, are advantages.

The Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing (UAM)

metal sheets are joined together by ultrasonic welding in this method. The unbound metal must be further CNC machined as part of the procedure. In contrast to LOM, the metal is difficult to remove by hand; instead, it needs to be machined away. A 0.150 mm thick by 25 mm wide metallic tape that saves material does, however, leave less material to clip off later. After the procedure is completed, or after every layer is applied, milling might take place. Titanium, copper, stainless steel, and aluminum are among the metals used. Low temperature processing enables the creation of interior geometries.

The process's ability to fuse various materials and low energy consumption stem from the metal not being melted but rather being combined with ultrasonic frequency and pressure. The primary benefit of integrating wiring and electronics is the ability to construct overhangs. Metals' plastic deformation aids in the bonding of materials. More surface contact is made possible via plastic deformation, which strengthens already-formed connections.

Essentially any sheet material that has the ability to roll. Paper, polymers, and some metal sheets.

A4 paper is the most often used substance.

Benefits

Advantages include speed, affordability, and convenience of handling materials; nevertheless,

the type of adhesive utilized determines the models' strength and integrity.

Because the cutting path only includes the shape's perimeter and not the complete cross-sectional region, cutting can happen relatively quickly.

Drawbacks

Depending on the type of paper or plastic, finishes can differ, but post-processing may be necessary to get the desired result.

restricted use of materials

Further research is necessary to push fusion methods into a more mainstream standing.

Directed Energy Deposition

"Laser engineered net shaping, directed light fabrication, direct metal deposition, and 3D laser cladding" are some of the terms that fall under the umbrella of Directed Energy Deposition (DED). This more intricate printing method is frequently employed to fix or bolster up components that already exist.

A nozzle on a multi-axis arm drops melted material onto a designated surface, where it solidifies, in a conventional DED machine. Though the nozzle is not set to a single axis and can move in numerous directions, the process is conceptually similar to material extrusion. The material is melted using a laser or electron beam during deposition, which is possible because of the 4 and 5 axis machines. Although polymers and ceramics can be processed using this method, metals in the form of wire or powder are usually processed first.

Applications such as maintaining and repairing structural components are common.

Direct Energy Deposition: A Comprehensive Guide

A nozzle-equipped A4 or 5 axis arm rotates around a stationary item.

Material is applied to the object's already-existing surfaces via the nozzle.

Either wire or powdered material is supplied.

When material is deposited, it is melted using a laser, electron beam, or plasma arc.

In order to create or repair new material features on the existing object, more material is added layer by layer and allowed to solidify.

Wire or powdered material is used in the DED process. Because wire is a pre-formed shape, it is less precise than powder, but it uses less material overall because only the necessary amount is needed. There are three different ways to melt materials: using a laser, an electron beam, or a plasma arc in a controlled environment with low oxygen levels. Unlike fixed, vertical deposition, the feed head movement of 4 or 5 axis machines does not affect the material flow rate.

Although the object stays in the same place while the arm travels most of the time, this can also happen in reverse, with the platform moving while the arm stays in the same place. The specific application and item being printed will determine which option is best. The material cools very quickly; it usually takes between 1000 and 5000 degrees Celsius per second. The ultimate grain structure of the material deposited will be influenced by the cooling period; however, material overlapping must also be taken into account because it may cause re-melting, which would result in a microstructure that is uniform yet alternating. Layer thicknesses of 0.25 mm to 0.5 mm are typical.

The Electron Beam Melting process uses metals and not polymers or ceramics.

Metals: Cobalt Chrome, Titanium

Benefits of DED

High degree of control over the grain structure makes it possible to restore high-quality, functional pieces using this procedure.

Surface quality and speed must be balanced, while in repair applications, speed is frequently given up in favor of high accuracy and a predetermined microstructure.

Drawbacks

Depending on the type of paper or plastic, finishes can differ, but post-processing may be necessary to get the desired result.

restricted use of materials

Further research is necessary to push fusion methods into a more mainstream standing.

Materials

Metals, ceramics, and polymers are the three materials that can be utilized in additive manufacturing. These materials can be used in any of the seven AM techniques, though polymers are the most often utilized. Materials are frequently manufactured as wire feedstock or in powder form. Adhesive sheets for LOM, polymer, paper, and chocolate are among other materials that are utilized. Any material can be printed using this layer-by-layer technique, albeit the material will ultimately dictate the majority of the final quality. When compared to other manufacturing techniques, material attributes may not always be exactly the same after manufacture because the aforementioned processes can alter a material's microstructure due to high temperatures and pressures.

Polymers

ABS and PC are examples of common plastics that can be used in 3D printing. The standard structural polymers and other waxes and epoxy-based resins can also be employed. An extensive variety of structural and decorative materials can be made by combining different polymer powders.

You can use the following polymers:

ABS (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene)

PLA (polylactide), including soft PLA

PC (polycarbonate)

Polyamide (Nylon)

Nylon 12 (Tensile strength 45 Mpa)

Glass filled nylon (12.48 Mpa)

Epoxy resin

Wax

Photopolymer resins

Metals

Many metals can be employed, including those that are appropriate for integral and structural component parts. Steel, titanium, aluminum, and cobalt chrome alloy are frequently used metals.

Maraging  steel  1.2709 (Tensile Strength 1100 Mpa)

Titanium alloy Ti6AI4V (Tensile Strength: 1150 Mpa)

15-5ph  stainless  steel (Tensile Strength: 1150 Mpa)

Cobalt  chrome  alloy, Co28Cr6Mo (Tensile Strength 1300 Mpa)

Aluminium  alsi10mg  (Tensile Strength 445mpa)

Gold and Silver

Ceramics

Silica/Glass

Porcelain

Silicon-Carbide

Issues with additive manufacturing

Additive manufacturing is not without its difficulties. The cost of additive manufacturing equipment can reach the hundreds of thousands of dollars. It takes longer to use them than it does to use traditional production for large lot sizes. Additionally, post-processing is frequently necessary for additively created products in order to, among other things, clean up and smooth off sharp edges. However, "ensuring your final part has good properties" is one of the most difficult tasks. From the standpoint of material science, that is most likely the main difficulty with additive manufacturing. How can the amount of potential flaws be decreased?

Those who studies the chemistry of metal powders, the metal itself, together with its characteristics and the method of creation, can all have an impact. "if powders don't quite sinter together, it forms defects that lead to failure." "Depending on how your metal is processed, you may get residual stress and internal strain in the material, which can cause the part to want to bend naturally."

Metals are not the only materials to have flaws in additively made items. Considering how new additive manufacturing is, scientists are still learning about its various facets, the interplay of materials, and ways to reduce the possibility of final items having flaws.

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